Popular in Social Sciences

Banks and Policy Organisations

Macroeconomic modelling of CBDC: a critical review

European Central Bank Ulrich Bindseil

Social Identities and Divisions

A new explanation of antisemitism: Jew hatred as a civilisational phenomenon

Boston University Liah Greenfeld

Banks and Policy Organisations

Financing Private Credit

Federal Reserve Bank of New York Nina Boyarchenko

Economics

Failing Banks

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Emil Verner

Culture and Society

The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place

New York University Harvey Moltoch

American Politics

Keeping the Republic

Boston College Marc Landy

British Politics

Entrepreneurial thinking: the politics and practice of policy impact

University of Sheffield Matthew Flinders

Can’t We All Just Get Along? How Women MPs Can Ameliorate Affective Polarization in Western Publics

View more insights in Social Sciences - Political Science - Politics and Gender

View more figures from University of California, Davis

View the page of James Adams

Read the Study

Next in Political Science

Is There Really a Dictator’s Dilemma? Information and Repression in Autocracy

Scott Gehlbach | University of Chicago

Pollster choices vs voters’ decisions

Joshua Clinton | Vanderbilt University

Can increasing the number of women in parliament help reduce partisan hostility, and how does their representation influence warmer attitudes toward opposing parties across Western democracies?

Image courtesy of interviewee. November 5, 2024

Log-in or Sign-up to Faculti
Currently viewing this subject insight as a guest. You have insight(s) remaining for this month. Login to view 8000+ figures on the platform.

Generating Workspace...

Export as PDF

This video discusses research on effective polarization—heightened feelings of anger, distrust, and contempt across political party lines—conducted by the author and co-authors Noam Giron and Will Horn. They were motivated by rising political hostility in their respective countries, the United States and Israel. Their research, including a book published in 2020, examines the causes of effective polarization in Western democracies using data until 2017.

A key aspect explored was the potential impact of women politicians on political anger. The author was inspired by discussions with his wife, a psychologist, who highlighted gender differences in political interaction. This video led to a hypothesis that a higher presence of women in political parties might lower animosity towards them.

The research utilized a large data set to analyze the relationship between anger directed at political parties and the proportion of women members in those parties. Findings indicated that parties with more women tended to incite less dislike. While several factors contribute to political opinions, including economic conditions and party policies, the presence of women still played a significant role.

This video concludes that as women gain more representation in politics and society's attitudes toward women in leadership evolve, effective polarization may decrease, leading to more gender-balanced political representation in the future.

Language:

Export as PDF

Export as PDF
Here are five key points from the video regarding effective polarization and the influence of women in politics:

1. **Definition and Convideo of Effective Polarization**: The researchers, including the authors, have been studying effective polarization, which refers to the negative emotions (anger, distrust, contempt, hatred) that citizens feel toward opposing political parties. This interest arose from political developments in their respective home countries—Israel and the United States—that highlighted increasing political division.

2. **Previous Research and New Hypothesis**: In their 2020 book, the authors explored causes of effective polarization across Western democracies from the mid-1990s to 2017 but did not address the impact of women politicians. Inspired by conversations with the author's psychologist wife, they began investigating whether a higher presence of women in political parties correlates with reduced political anger and hostility.

3. **Research Methodology**: The authors utilized data from the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems to analyze the relationship between the proportion of women politicians in parties and levels of political hostility towards those parties. They employed a thermometer score to quantitatively measure respondents' feelings towards their party and opposing parties across 20 Western democracies.

4. **Findings**: The study indicated a consistent pattern: political parties with a higher proportion of women members tended to incite less dislike than those dominated by men, even after accounting for other influential factors like economic conditions and party policy positions. This suggests a significant correlation between gender representation in politics and effective polarization.

5. **Expectations for Future Trends**: The authors anticipate that the representation of women in national parliaments will continue to grow, influenced by shifts in societal attitudes toward women in leadership and increasing visibility of women in high-level political positions. This trend may contribute to a reduction in political polarization over time, as female politicians are often associated with less hostility among party supporters.

Export as PDF
Here are some key quotes and themes from the video:

1. **Effective Polarization Definition**:
- "Effective polarization... refers to citizens' feelings of anger, distrust, contempt, and even hatred across party lines."

2. **Personal Motivation**:
- "This was inspired by the fact that all three of us were very upset by the political developments we observed in our home countries."

3. **Research Convideo**:
- "We wrote a book back in 2020, trying to understand the causes of effective polarization across Western democracies."

4. **Underexplored Factors**:
- "One thing that we didn't look at in the book was the possible influence of women and women politicians... on the levels of political anger."

5. **Influence of Gender Dynamics**:
- "My wife... would often ask me if I'd considered the differences in the way that men and women interact."

6. **Research Hypothesis**:
- "Here was this hypothesis that the presence of women politicians might just lower the [levels of] anger and hostility directed at different political parties."

7. **Methodology**:
- "We have a way of measuring people's anger and hostility and distrust towards opposing political parties... [using] a thermometer score."

8. **Impact of January 6th**:
- "The day that the American capital was stormed... people realized that feelings can have consequences and perhaps dangerous and even lethal consequences."

9. **Gender Representation in Politics**:
- "The parties that featured more women members of parliament tended to be less sharply disliked than the parties that featured fewer."

10. **Trends in Women’s Representation**:
- "The representation of women in parliament has been increasing across time, and I would expect that trend to continue."

11. **Changing Perceptions**:
- "The popular resistance against electing women has been melting over the last several decades."

12. **Future Expectations**:
- "As women become more visible in high-level positions... I expect the representation of women in national parliaments to continue to increase."

These quotes encapsulate the main ideas regarding the impact of women in politics on effective polarization and the research process undertaken by the authors. They highlight personal motivations for the research, methodologies used, findings related to gender representation, and broader societal trends.

Export as PDF
Here are some articles that discuss themes similar to those in your video about effective polarization, women's representation in politics, and the impacts of gender on political dynamics:

1. **"The Gender Gap in Political Attitudes: Evidence from the 2020 Election"**
This article analyzes how gender influences political beliefs and voting behaviors, with a focus on the 2020 U.S. Presidential election. It delves into the political perspectives of men and women, particularly regarding polarization in party identification.

2. **"Women’s Representation and the Future of Democracy"**
This piece explores the importance of women's political representation in democracies worldwide and how increasing the number of women in political offices can affect party dynamics and public trust in governance.

3. **"The Effect of Female Politicians on Voter Perceptions"**
This research article examines whether the presence of female politicians in various legislative bodies influences public perceptions of those parties, emphasizing the potential for lower hostility towards parties with diverse representation.

4. **"Polarization and Political Trust: The Role of Gender"**
This article investigates how political trust varies by gender and how this impacts effective polarization, particularly in contentious political environments. It presents data suggesting that female leaders can foster greater trust among constituents.

5. **"Understanding Political Anger and Polarization: The Impact of Gender on Political Dialogue"**
Here, researchers analyze the role of gender in political discussions, investigating how male and female politicians engage differently and the implications of these differences on levels of political anger and polarization among constituents.

6. **“Women in Politics: Analyzing the Effects of Gender Quotas on Party Dynamics”**
This article evaluates the implementation of gender quotas in political parties across different nations and how this affects intra-party relations and public perceptions, with a focus on the resulting polarization levels.

7. **"Cultural Issues and Political Identity: Gender's Role in Effective Polarization"**
This article addresses the intersection of cultural policy debates (like immigration and gender rights) and their impact on effective polarization, especially how these issues resonate differently with male and female politicians and their constituents.

These articles will help to further explore the themes raised in your original video, focusing on political dynamics, gender representation, and the effects of effective polarization in various democratic convideos.

X-TIMESTAMP-MAP=LOCAL:00:00:00.000,MPEGTS:90000

1
00:00:00.105 --> 00:00:02.925
My co-authors, Noam Giron and Will Horn

2
00:00:02.925 --> 00:00:04.965
and I have been working on the topic

3
00:00:05.025 --> 00:00:09.165
of effective polarization, which refers to citizens',

4
00:00:09.165 --> 00:00:12.165
feelings of anger, distrust, contempt,

5
00:00:12.165 --> 00:00:15.525
and even hatred across party lines for several years.

6
00:00:16.145 --> 00:00:19.365
And this was inspired by the fact that all three

7
00:00:19.605 --> 00:00:23.445
of us were very upset by the political developments we

8
00:00:23.965 --> 00:00:25.325
observed in our home countries.

9
00:00:25.715 --> 00:00:29.205
Will and I are Americans and No is Israeli.

10
00:00:29.785 --> 00:00:31.085
And in both Israel

11
00:00:31.105 --> 00:00:33.645
and the United States, we've seen rising levels

12
00:00:33.865 --> 00:00:37.685
of political anger and hostility across party lines.

13
00:00:38.265 --> 00:00:41.805
So we've been working on this topic for several years now.

14
00:00:42.305 --> 00:00:44.445
And, Noam Giron Will Horn

15
00:00:44.445 --> 00:00:48.925
and I wrote a book back in 2020, trying to understand

16
00:00:49.585 --> 00:00:51.085
the, causes

17
00:00:51.185 --> 00:00:55.125
of effective polarization across Western democracies,

18
00:00:55.125 --> 00:00:57.925
looking at the levels of effective polarization

19
00:00:58.475 --> 00:01:02.805
from the mid 1990s up until the year 2017, which was

20
00:01:02.855 --> 00:01:05.645
where the data stopped at the time that we wrote the book

21
00:01:06.185 --> 00:01:09.005
and trying to relate them to various factors.

22
00:01:09.505 --> 00:01:12.565
And in the book, we felt we made some progress in building

23
00:01:12.625 --> 00:01:15.645
up a profile of the types of societies

24
00:01:15.675 --> 00:01:18.245
that featured more intense political anger.

25
00:01:18.385 --> 00:01:19.845
And those that featured less.

26
00:01:20.195 --> 00:01:22.565
However, we couldn't look at everything.

27
00:01:22.745 --> 00:01:26.485
And one thing that we didn't look at in the book was the

28
00:01:26.805 --> 00:01:28.125
possible influence of women

29
00:01:28.305 --> 00:01:31.365
and women politicians, in particular on the levels

30
00:01:31.385 --> 00:01:35.445
of political anger that we see now, ironically,

31
00:01:35.575 --> 00:01:37.885
while the three of us are academics,

32
00:01:37.945 --> 00:01:42.205
and all three of us are professors now, part of the,

33
00:01:42.395 --> 00:01:44.445
beginning of this research was in

34
00:01:44.445 --> 00:01:46.285
conversations I had with my wife.

35
00:01:46.665 --> 00:01:50.005
My wife is a psychologist and a marriage family therapist.

36
00:01:50.505 --> 00:01:53.325
And whenever I would talk with her about

37
00:01:53.345 --> 00:01:56.685
how upset I was about the rising levels of anger

38
00:01:56.985 --> 00:01:59.085
and hostility across party lines,

39
00:01:59.665 --> 00:02:02.805
she would often ask me if I'd considered the differences in

40
00:02:02.805 --> 00:02:05.085
the way that men and women interact.

41
00:02:05.625 --> 00:02:08.005
And she told me that there is widespread,

42
00:02:08.325 --> 00:02:09.525
research in psychology

43
00:02:09.945 --> 00:02:13.725
and in the broader field of political communication showing

44
00:02:13.725 --> 00:02:16.445
that women simply tend to behave differently.

45
00:02:17.155 --> 00:02:18.565
Well, in listening to her

46
00:02:18.825 --> 00:02:22.205
and I try very hard to listen to my wife who's an extremely,

47
00:02:22.465 --> 00:02:24.805
intelligent woman, it occurred to me

48
00:02:24.805 --> 00:02:28.125
that this was something that we could actually investigate.

49
00:02:28.705 --> 00:02:30.685
And in Nom Giran, well Horn

50
00:02:30.685 --> 00:02:35.605
and I had all of the, data already collected on

51
00:02:35.705 --> 00:02:39.765
how angry people were at different political parties in,

52
00:02:39.785 --> 00:02:41.765
20 Western democracies.

53
00:02:42.155 --> 00:02:44.725
This seemed to be something that was worth exploring.

54
00:02:45.025 --> 00:02:49.205
At that point, we reached out to our friend Diana O'Brien,

55
00:02:49.625 --> 00:02:53.005
who is one of the world's leading scholars on the topic

56
00:02:53.065 --> 00:02:54.925
of women and politics,

57
00:02:55.305 --> 00:02:57.445
and she was very interested in this topic.

58
00:02:57.625 --> 00:03:01.405
We also invited on a, a couple of other very smart,

59
00:03:01.805 --> 00:03:05.365
researchers that was Kaitlyn Sink and, David Bracken.

60
00:03:06.025 --> 00:03:08.805
And we decided that we would actually do the research.

61
00:03:09.145 --> 00:03:10.725
And we thought that a good first step

62
00:03:10.725 --> 00:03:14.685
to do this research would be to link the amount of anger

63
00:03:14.945 --> 00:03:18.125
and hostility directed at different political parties

64
00:03:18.755 --> 00:03:19.845
with the number

65
00:03:20.065 --> 00:03:23.885
or proportion of prominent women politicians in

66
00:03:23.885 --> 00:03:25.045
those political parties.

67
00:03:25.545 --> 00:03:27.725
So that's where the research came from.

68
00:03:28.145 --> 00:03:30.285
And like so much academic research,

69
00:03:30.385 --> 00:03:34.325
it really began this idea that here was this hypothesis that

70
00:03:35.145 --> 00:03:38.645
the presence of women politicians might just lower the

71
00:03:38.645 --> 00:03:41.205
temperature, but on the other hand, it might not.

72
00:03:41.455 --> 00:03:43.845
There are so many other things that can cause people

73
00:03:43.865 --> 00:03:46.005
to be angry or distrustful

74
00:03:46.145 --> 00:03:48.645
or on the other hand, perhaps more conciliatory

75
00:03:49.145 --> 00:03:53.125
and trustful beyond the gender of the politicians

76
00:03:53.125 --> 00:03:54.285
who they're evaluating.

77
00:03:54.515 --> 00:03:57.965
Because of this, we thought it was an interesting hypothesis

78
00:03:57.965 --> 00:04:02.125
to investigate, and that's how we began to study this.

79
00:04:02.425 --> 00:04:05.085
We really began to see it back in 2018,

80
00:04:05.585 --> 00:04:08.485
was a fairly lengthy process, gathering the data

81
00:04:08.825 --> 00:04:10.205
and doing the analysis.

82
00:04:10.305 --> 00:04:13.005
And it eventually resulted in this, paper

83
00:04:13.355 --> 00:04:15.285
that appeared in the year 2020.

84
00:04:15.705 --> 00:04:19.965
We have a way of measuring people's, anger and hostility

85
00:04:19.965 --> 00:04:22.725
and distrust towards opposing political parties,

86
00:04:22.935 --> 00:04:25.325
which quite frankly is a blunt instrument,

87
00:04:25.545 --> 00:04:27.125
but it's all we have if we want

88
00:04:27.125 --> 00:04:30.525
to study this question across a large number of countries

89
00:04:30.585 --> 00:04:32.605
and also over a long time period.

90
00:04:33.025 --> 00:04:34.685
Um, and this instrument

91
00:04:34.685 --> 00:04:37.485
that we use is something called a thermometer score,

92
00:04:37.575 --> 00:04:39.685
where in these national surveys,

93
00:04:39.985 --> 00:04:42.125
survey respondents are asked first,

94
00:04:42.235 --> 00:04:44.245
what political party do you support?

95
00:04:44.505 --> 00:04:46.405
Uh, and then after that, they're asked

96
00:04:46.405 --> 00:04:48.445
to rate their own political party,

97
00:04:48.905 --> 00:04:52.005
but also opposing political parties on the scale

98
00:04:52.035 --> 00:04:55.285
that runs from zero to 10, where zero indicates

99
00:04:55.285 --> 00:04:57.965
that the most cold feelings five is neutral,

100
00:04:58.105 --> 00:05:01.765
and 10 is, the warmest possible feelings.

101
00:05:02.025 --> 00:05:03.605
So that was the measure that we used.

102
00:05:03.945 --> 00:05:06.645
Of course, that only stalls the question by one click

103
00:05:06.795 --> 00:05:10.565
because what does the content of a negative

104
00:05:10.625 --> 00:05:12.565
or cold rating actually indicate?

105
00:05:12.615 --> 00:05:15.925
There are so many things that could indicate including say,

106
00:05:16.025 --> 00:05:19.005
policy disagreements with a particular politician

107
00:05:19.065 --> 00:05:20.245
or a political party.

108
00:05:20.715 --> 00:05:23.525
Alternatively, one might question their competence

109
00:05:23.585 --> 00:05:27.485
or their ethics, or one might more broadly question their

110
00:05:27.485 --> 00:05:29.285
character and see these people

111
00:05:29.545 --> 00:05:31.685
as being simply maligned forces

112
00:05:32.105 --> 00:05:34.245
or quite simply evil people

113
00:05:34.305 --> 00:05:38.325
who perhaps have authoritarian tendencies, or who have

114
00:05:38.325 --> 00:05:41.645
otherwise bad intentions that we don't know.

115
00:05:41.735 --> 00:05:44.325
Based on the research that we did, I'll mention

116
00:05:44.325 --> 00:05:48.805
that this topic of effective polarization is relatively new.

117
00:05:49.345 --> 00:05:51.045
Um, up until about three

118
00:05:51.045 --> 00:05:53.205
or four years ago, there were not very many

119
00:05:53.225 --> 00:05:55.405
of us working on this, particularly

120
00:05:55.595 --> 00:05:56.885
outside the United States.

121
00:05:57.265 --> 00:05:59.325
United, I can give you the precise state.

122
00:05:59.325 --> 00:06:03.725
When all that changed January 6th, 2021,

123
00:06:04.105 --> 00:06:07.885
the day that the American capital was stormed prior to that,

124
00:06:07.985 --> 00:06:10.685
the reaction of a lot of scholars to the research

125
00:06:10.715 --> 00:06:13.325
that Nom Giron and Will Horn and I

126
00:06:13.325 --> 00:06:16.725
and others were doing was essentially, well, you seem

127
00:06:16.725 --> 00:06:18.405
to be studying people's feelings

128
00:06:18.785 --> 00:06:20.605
and, you know, people's feelings aren't

129
00:06:20.605 --> 00:06:21.805
really very important.

130
00:06:22.305 --> 00:06:24.525
We don't need to worry about people's feelings

131
00:06:24.975 --> 00:06:26.405
after January 6th.

132
00:06:26.725 --> 00:06:28.525
I think a lot of people change their mind.

133
00:06:28.795 --> 00:06:31.765
They suddenly realize that feelings can have consequences

134
00:06:32.265 --> 00:06:35.765
and perhaps dangerous and even lethal consequences.

135
00:06:36.385 --> 00:06:39.205
But to get back to your broader question there,

136
00:06:40.145 --> 00:06:41.645
we don't know precisely

137
00:06:41.675 --> 00:06:45.245
what these negative feelings are in the research that we do.

138
00:06:45.545 --> 00:06:48.725
We know or we feel we can measure how coldly

139
00:06:48.785 --> 00:06:51.365
or how warmly people feel towards their opponents.

140
00:06:51.585 --> 00:06:55.365
The precise content of those cold or warm feelings.

141
00:06:55.425 --> 00:06:59.085
We don't know. We strongly suspect that it's tied up

142
00:06:59.145 --> 00:07:03.645
to a mixture of distrust, contempt, disdain,

143
00:07:04.395 --> 00:07:06.285
fear, and even hatred.

144
00:07:06.785 --> 00:07:09.005
But exactly where those feelings come from

145
00:07:09.185 --> 00:07:12.885
and which ones they are is something that we haven't,

146
00:07:12.885 --> 00:07:15.205
made much progress in understanding so far.

147
00:07:15.545 --> 00:07:18.885
The hypothesis means that,

148
00:07:19.065 --> 00:07:23.925
people are expected to evaluate their political opponents,

149
00:07:24.325 --> 00:07:26.605
opposing political parties more warmly.

150
00:07:27.225 --> 00:07:31.525
If the party they're evaluating has a larger proportion

151
00:07:31.625 --> 00:07:34.805
of women members of parliament in the United States,

152
00:07:34.875 --> 00:07:37.285
that would mean that they have a larger share

153
00:07:37.345 --> 00:07:39.725
of women in Congress in Britain,

154
00:07:40.075 --> 00:07:42.445
that they have a larger share of women in the House

155
00:07:42.445 --> 00:07:43.845
of Commons and so on.

156
00:07:44.105 --> 00:07:45.605
So that's the hypothesis,

157
00:07:45.625 --> 00:07:47.285
and that's what we set out to test.

158
00:07:47.545 --> 00:07:49.285
The data that we used in order

159
00:07:49.305 --> 00:07:53.085
to evaluate this hypothesis began with this very large set

160
00:07:53.085 --> 00:07:54.205
of surveys,

161
00:07:54.205 --> 00:07:57.205
that are collectively labeled the comparative study

162
00:07:57.305 --> 00:07:58.565
of electoral systems.

163
00:07:59.105 --> 00:08:01.365
And these are surveys that have been conducted

164
00:08:01.365 --> 00:08:04.045
that have been collected, across 40

165
00:08:04.145 --> 00:08:07.965
or 50 countries since the mid 1990s.

166
00:08:08.545 --> 00:08:13.365
And, we analyzed our data in 20 Western democracies

167
00:08:14.025 --> 00:08:16.645
and, the countries that we looked at were, well,

168
00:08:16.705 --> 00:08:20.285
the United States and every other major democracy.

169
00:08:21.025 --> 00:08:24.005
In these surveys, we collect data,

170
00:08:24.505 --> 00:08:27.765
on the survey respondent's party support,

171
00:08:27.815 --> 00:08:30.245
which political party they identify with.

172
00:08:30.625 --> 00:08:34.285
And then we also collected their ratings of their own party

173
00:08:34.545 --> 00:08:38.485
and the, the parties of all the other parties in the system

174
00:08:38.595 --> 00:08:41.685
that is all of their political opponents on this

175
00:08:41.795 --> 00:08:43.125
zero to 10 scale.

176
00:08:43.865 --> 00:08:48.005
So by collecting those data, we had measures of

177
00:08:48.665 --> 00:08:53.525
how disliked all political parties were by all

178
00:08:53.525 --> 00:08:54.925
of their political opponents,

179
00:08:55.265 --> 00:08:57.645
how much Republicans disliked Democrat,

180
00:08:57.645 --> 00:08:58.645
the Democratic Party,

181
00:08:59.125 --> 00:09:01.045
Democrats disliked the Republican party,

182
00:09:01.395 --> 00:09:03.805
conservatives disliked the Labor Party in

183
00:09:03.805 --> 00:09:04.965
Britain and so forth.

184
00:09:05.385 --> 00:09:08.205
So that was the data that we had from the comparative study

185
00:09:08.225 --> 00:09:12.835
of electoral systems to collect the data on the

186
00:09:13.355 --> 00:09:15.675
proportion of women members

187
00:09:15.775 --> 00:09:17.675
of parliament in each of these parties.

188
00:09:18.025 --> 00:09:19.475
Well, we had some data sources,

189
00:09:19.695 --> 00:09:23.035
but we had to gather some of that data, ourselves.

190
00:09:23.455 --> 00:09:26.675
And in most cases, it was fairly easy to collect the names

191
00:09:26.935 --> 00:09:28.555
of all these members of parliament.

192
00:09:28.825 --> 00:09:32.395
Some of the names were very clearly associated with men

193
00:09:32.395 --> 00:09:34.315
and women some less clearly.

194
00:09:34.535 --> 00:09:37.795
So in which case we had to do more detective work.

195
00:09:38.295 --> 00:09:42.795
So the collection of the data on the proportion of men

196
00:09:42.795 --> 00:09:44.595
and women in the, in the various parties,

197
00:09:44.985 --> 00:09:48.595
that was actually quite time consuming the data from the

198
00:09:48.595 --> 00:09:50.435
comparative study of electoral systems.

199
00:09:50.775 --> 00:09:53.995
That's fairly easy. It's all up there, uploaded.

200
00:09:54.055 --> 00:09:55.835
We simply had to download the data.

201
00:09:56.575 --> 00:10:00.595
We then decided to simply check once we had the data on the

202
00:10:00.755 --> 00:10:02.995
proportion of, women members

203
00:10:03.055 --> 00:10:06.615
of parliament in each party, we looked

204
00:10:06.795 --> 00:10:10.975
to see whether there was in fact a pattern in which the

205
00:10:10.975 --> 00:10:14.575
parties that featured a larger proportion of women members

206
00:10:14.675 --> 00:10:17.535
of parliament did in fact seem

207
00:10:17.755 --> 00:10:20.535
to incite less dislike than the parties

208
00:10:20.605 --> 00:10:22.215
that were documented by men.

209
00:10:22.635 --> 00:10:24.255
Now, one interesting feature of this

210
00:10:24.255 --> 00:10:27.975
that will probably not surprise anyone is that most

211
00:10:28.115 --> 00:10:31.775
of these parties across the entire period we looked at from

212
00:10:32.015 --> 00:10:34.015
1996 through 2017,

213
00:10:34.685 --> 00:10:38.255
typically featured more men than women in their

214
00:10:38.255 --> 00:10:39.655
parliamentary delegations

215
00:10:39.805 --> 00:10:42.575
because women back in the mid 1990s

216
00:10:42.575 --> 00:10:46.495
and even today, are underrepresented in parliaments even

217
00:10:46.695 --> 00:10:48.855
though, the proportion of women members

218
00:10:48.875 --> 00:10:52.215
of parliament has been increasing over that period.

219
00:10:52.995 --> 00:10:56.255
So for the most part, the parliamentary delegations

220
00:10:56.285 --> 00:10:59.735
that we looked at from the different political parties,

221
00:10:59.885 --> 00:11:01.615
some of them featured a roughly even

222
00:11:01.615 --> 00:11:02.895
balance of men and women.

223
00:11:03.285 --> 00:11:05.295
Some were dominated by men.

224
00:11:05.705 --> 00:11:09.255
There were a very small number of parliamentary delegations

225
00:11:09.325 --> 00:11:12.575
that featured a significantly greater number of women,

226
00:11:13.035 --> 00:11:16.055
but far, far more featured a greater number of men.

227
00:11:16.565 --> 00:11:17.935
Overall, the proportion

228
00:11:17.935 --> 00:11:21.095
of women in these parliamentary delegations was a little bit

229
00:11:21.185 --> 00:11:22.455
below 30%,

230
00:11:23.175 --> 00:11:25.135
although, as I mentioned, it did increase

231
00:11:25.275 --> 00:11:26.295
across this period.

232
00:11:26.955 --> 00:11:28.095
So we checked

233
00:11:28.755 --> 00:11:30.935
and we wanted to see what the pattern looked like.

234
00:11:31.475 --> 00:11:34.855
And long story short, what we found that was in

235
00:11:34.855 --> 00:11:37.495
that indeed there was a pattern that was consistent

236
00:11:37.565 --> 00:11:39.215
with our hypothesis.

237
00:11:39.515 --> 00:11:43.175
Namely, the parties that featured more women members

238
00:11:43.235 --> 00:11:44.895
of parliament tended

239
00:11:44.895 --> 00:11:48.775
to be less sharply disliked than the parties that featured,

240
00:11:48.995 --> 00:11:51.975
fewer, women members of parliament.

241
00:11:52.435 --> 00:11:54.165
Now, of course, the analysis

242
00:11:54.165 --> 00:11:56.885
that we did was somewhat more complicated than that

243
00:11:57.035 --> 00:12:00.445
because there are many factors that contribute

244
00:12:00.465 --> 00:12:01.685
to a party being liked

245
00:12:01.685 --> 00:12:05.045
and disliked beyond the proportion of women in

246
00:12:05.045 --> 00:12:07.205
that they feature in their parliamentary delegation.

247
00:12:07.595 --> 00:12:10.365
Some of the other features that have been found

248
00:12:10.365 --> 00:12:13.845
to matter if you're trying to predict these things, are

249
00:12:14.525 --> 00:12:15.845
national economic conditions.

250
00:12:16.025 --> 00:12:20.205
People tend to be angrier and express more disdain

251
00:12:20.465 --> 00:12:24.205
and hostility towards their opponents when the economy is in

252
00:12:24.205 --> 00:12:26.325
a recession than when the economy is strong.

253
00:12:26.665 --> 00:12:29.645
Uh, you, as you would also guess, it also depends

254
00:12:30.185 --> 00:12:32.165
on party's policy positions

255
00:12:32.665 --> 00:12:36.365
and in particular, if a party has taken less popular

256
00:12:36.885 --> 00:12:39.525
positions with respect to prominent issues,

257
00:12:39.875 --> 00:12:41.725
debates over economic policy

258
00:12:41.945 --> 00:12:44.325
or cultural policy, that will affect

259
00:12:44.325 --> 00:12:45.605
how popular the party is.

260
00:12:45.905 --> 00:12:48.685
And in particular, there's research suggesting

261
00:12:48.835 --> 00:12:50.205
that in recent years,

262
00:12:50.535 --> 00:12:54.005
these cultural policy debates over issues such

263
00:12:54.005 --> 00:12:58.045
as immigration, abortion, gay marriage,

264
00:12:58.105 --> 00:13:00.165
and so forth, that these tend

265
00:13:00.165 --> 00:13:02.165
to make people especially angry.

266
00:13:02.625 --> 00:13:05.245
And in the words of another political scientist,

267
00:13:05.535 --> 00:13:08.725
these cultural issues are debates over who we are.

268
00:13:09.685 --> 00:13:11.365
Economic debates are over who gets

269
00:13:11.435 --> 00:13:14.125
what you can compromise over who gets what.

270
00:13:14.275 --> 00:13:17.605
It's much more difficult to compromise over who we are.

271
00:13:17.945 --> 00:13:19.805
So we had to account for those things.

272
00:13:20.255 --> 00:13:23.405
Other studies have shown that there are other factors,

273
00:13:23.405 --> 00:13:27.445
that affect, these, party's degree

274
00:13:27.445 --> 00:13:30.605
of popularity, or unpopularity.

275
00:13:31.185 --> 00:13:34.965
And finally I'll mention that if you're trying

276
00:13:34.965 --> 00:13:38.245
to figure out how well the partisans of a given party,

277
00:13:38.275 --> 00:13:39.685
like the other party, you need

278
00:13:39.685 --> 00:13:42.405
to take into account governing coalition arrangements.

279
00:13:42.825 --> 00:13:45.005
If you have two parties, for example,

280
00:13:45.315 --> 00:13:48.525
that are jointly governing the country,

281
00:13:48.995 --> 00:13:52.005
then the supporters of each party tend

282
00:13:52.005 --> 00:13:54.325
to feel more warmly towards the other party.

283
00:13:54.835 --> 00:13:57.325
Similarly, if two parties are both in opposition,

284
00:13:57.785 --> 00:14:01.005
the members of each party tend to feel more and warmly.

285
00:14:01.475 --> 00:14:03.965
However, if one party's in government

286
00:14:03.985 --> 00:14:07.285
and the other's in opposition, then all else equal,

287
00:14:07.385 --> 00:14:09.125
the parties tend to feel,

288
00:14:09.315 --> 00:14:12.485
much more coldly towards each other, presumably

289
00:14:12.555 --> 00:14:14.725
because they're constantly debating

290
00:14:14.945 --> 00:14:18.205
and arguing with each other across the island parliament.

291
00:14:18.505 --> 00:14:21.725
So we had to take all those factors into account,

292
00:14:22.305 --> 00:14:25.765
and indeed we found that these other factors matter too.

293
00:14:25.915 --> 00:14:28.405
There's a big effect related to,

294
00:14:28.405 --> 00:14:30.085
the party's policy positions.

295
00:14:30.235 --> 00:14:32.925
There's also a very large effect, relating

296
00:14:32.925 --> 00:14:35.925
to these governing coalition arrangements, for example.

297
00:14:36.425 --> 00:14:39.325
Um, but even accounting for these other factors,

298
00:14:39.735 --> 00:14:42.285
there was a consistent detectable effect.

299
00:14:42.755 --> 00:14:46.765
Parties that had more women elicited less hostility than

300
00:14:46.765 --> 00:14:48.765
parties that were dominated by men.

301
00:14:48.945 --> 00:14:51.925
The representation of women in parliament has been

302
00:14:51.925 --> 00:14:53.445
increasing across time,

303
00:14:53.945 --> 00:14:56.245
and I would expect that trend to continue.

304
00:14:56.665 --> 00:14:59.605
And notably, there are some political parties,

305
00:14:59.935 --> 00:15:02.605
especially over the past 10 years on the left.

306
00:15:02.695 --> 00:15:04.325
These tend to be green parties

307
00:15:04.505 --> 00:15:06.045
and social democratic parties

308
00:15:06.355 --> 00:15:09.565
that have actually instituted formal gender

309
00:15:09.865 --> 00:15:11.165
quotas for their candidates.

310
00:15:11.315 --> 00:15:15.605
That is that they need to have an even mix of, male

311
00:15:15.665 --> 00:15:16.885
and female candidates,

312
00:15:16.985 --> 00:15:20.325
or sometimes the quota is not set precisely at 50%.

313
00:15:20.625 --> 00:15:22.365
But the point is that there are some parties

314
00:15:22.365 --> 00:15:24.725
that have formally committed that they're going

315
00:15:24.725 --> 00:15:28.045
to nominate a significant number of women candidates.

316
00:15:28.625 --> 00:15:31.685
For that reason, I expect the representation of women

317
00:15:31.945 --> 00:15:34.165
to continue to grow over time.

318
00:15:34.555 --> 00:15:38.285
There's one other factor which is really outside of,

319
00:15:38.345 --> 00:15:41.165
our own research and in some ways the field of politics,

320
00:15:41.275 --> 00:15:43.005
that there's this increasing trend,

321
00:15:43.365 --> 00:15:47.285
particularly in the United States, among young people,

322
00:15:47.475 --> 00:15:50.685
that young men are struggling compared

323
00:15:50.685 --> 00:15:52.845
to young women at the university

324
00:15:52.845 --> 00:15:55.925
where I teach now the University of California Davis,

325
00:15:56.315 --> 00:16:00.045
roughly 60% of the undergraduate students are women.

326
00:16:00.505 --> 00:16:03.485
And indeed across universities in the United States,

327
00:16:03.935 --> 00:16:06.445
women sharply outnumber men.

328
00:16:06.735 --> 00:16:10.565
Women also are achieving better academic success

329
00:16:10.775 --> 00:16:12.285
among those who do go to college.

330
00:16:12.785 --> 00:16:16.685
It seems therefore that women are highly likely to continue

331
00:16:16.685 --> 00:16:20.445
to rise within all different fields, not simply politics,

332
00:16:20.505 --> 00:16:22.645
but also the law, science,

333
00:16:23.355 --> 00:16:25.725
education business, and so on.

334
00:16:26.265 --> 00:16:28.285
As women continue to succeed

335
00:16:28.345 --> 00:16:32.485
and as the younger women in our society, grow older

336
00:16:32.705 --> 00:16:34.925
and to the ages age where they're likely

337
00:16:34.945 --> 00:16:38.205
to hold national office, it seems likely that the proportion

338
00:16:38.205 --> 00:16:41.525
of women, elected officials

339
00:16:42.035 --> 00:16:43.365
will rise over time.

340
00:16:43.825 --> 00:16:47.485
One additional factor that surely contributes to this is

341
00:16:47.485 --> 00:16:51.005
that the popular resistance against

342
00:16:51.525 --> 00:16:53.765
electing women has been melting over the

343
00:16:53.765 --> 00:16:54.805
last several decades.

344
00:16:55.305 --> 00:16:57.085
The proportion of people, for example,

345
00:16:57.185 --> 00:17:00.125
in public opinion polls who state that they feel

346
00:17:00.125 --> 00:17:03.125
that women should not hold elective office,

347
00:17:03.505 --> 00:17:06.725
or that, men tend to be better qualified than women

348
00:17:07.305 --> 00:17:10.165
has been shrinking dramatically over

349
00:17:10.165 --> 00:17:11.325
the past several decades.

350
00:17:11.905 --> 00:17:14.605
For all of this reason, I expect the representation

351
00:17:14.705 --> 00:17:18.685
of women in national parliaments to continue to increase.

352
00:17:19.155 --> 00:17:21.605
Notably, of course, we have seen a number

353
00:17:21.625 --> 00:17:26.205
of prominent women leaders, at the level of,

354
00:17:26.205 --> 00:17:30.285
president in the United, in, of, president

355
00:17:30.465 --> 00:17:33.285
or in many cases, prime minister in Britain.

356
00:17:33.345 --> 00:17:34.965
Of course, you've had Margaret Thatcher

357
00:17:34.965 --> 00:17:39.245
and Theresa May, you had Angela Merkel, who,

358
00:17:39.385 --> 00:17:41.845
was dubbed until she stepped down,

359
00:17:41.845 --> 00:17:45.245
after, 2021, the most powerful woman in the world.

360
00:17:45.585 --> 00:17:47.085
Uh, you had Hillary Clinton

361
00:17:47.185 --> 00:17:49.285
who won the popular vote in 2016,

362
00:17:49.425 --> 00:17:50.845
but lost the electoral college.

363
00:17:51.305 --> 00:17:53.085
And of course, it's quite possible

364
00:17:53.395 --> 00:17:56.205
that three years from now we will have an American

365
00:17:56.345 --> 00:17:58.325
President-elect, Kamala Harris.

366
00:17:59.025 --> 00:18:03.765
So as women become more visible in high level positions such

367
00:18:03.765 --> 00:18:04.965
as members of Parliament

368
00:18:05.105 --> 00:18:08.605
and in the very top position as Prime Minister

369
00:18:08.905 --> 00:18:12.805
or possibly president of the United States, I expect

370
00:18:12.805 --> 00:18:16.845
that any remaining resistance to the notion

371
00:18:16.845 --> 00:18:18.605
that women can be effective leaders

372
00:18:18.705 --> 00:18:19.805
and can contribute

373
00:18:19.865 --> 00:18:23.045
to our national politics will continue to erode.

374
00:18:23.505 --> 00:18:26.285
And I fully expect that within 30

375
00:18:26.385 --> 00:18:29.685
or 40 years, hopefully I will live long enough to see it.

376
00:18:30.065 --> 00:18:32.405
We will see national parliaments,

377
00:18:32.825 --> 00:18:34.645
and governing cabinets

378
00:18:34.955 --> 00:18:37.205
that are essentially gender equal.

Exploring Effective Polarization and Gender's Role in Political Anger

00:00:00 - My co-authors, Noam Giron and Will Horn and I have been working on the topic of effective polarization, which refers to citizens', feelings of anger, distrust, contempt, and even hatred across party lines for several years. And this was inspired by the fact that all three of us were very upset by the political developments we observed in our home countries. Will and I are Americans and No is Israeli. And in both Israel

00:00:33 - of political anger and hostility across party lines. So we've been working on this topic for several years now. And, Noam Giron Will Horn and I wrote a book back in 2020, trying to understand the, causes of effective polarization across Western democracies, looking at the levels of effective polarization from the mid 1990s up until the year 2017, which was

00:01:06 - and trying to relate them to various factors. And in the book, we felt we made some progress in building up a profile of the types of societies that featured more intense political anger. And those that featured less. However, we couldn't look at everything. And one thing that we didn't look at in the book was the possible influence of women and women politicians, in particular on the levels of political anger that we see now, ironically,

Exploring Gender Differences in Political Polarization

00:01:37 - and all three of us are professors now, part of the, beginning of this research was in conversations I had with my wife. My wife is a psychologist and a marriage family therapist. And whenever I would talk with her about how upset I was about the rising levels of anger and hostility across party lines, she would often ask me if I'd considered the differences in the way that men and women interact.

00:02:08 - research in psychology and in the broader field of political communication showing that women simply tend to behave differently. Well, in listening to her and I try very hard to listen to my wife who's an extremely, intelligent woman, it occurred to me that this was something that we could actually investigate. And in Nom Giran, well Horn and I had all of the, data already collected on

00:02:39 - 20 Western democracies. This seemed to be something that was worth exploring. At that point, we reached out to our friend Diana O'Brien, who is one of the world's leading scholars on the topic of women and politics, and she was very interested in this topic. We also invited on a, a couple of other very smart, researchers that was Kaitlyn Sink and, David Bracken.

Linking Women Politicians to Political Hostility

00:03:09 - And we thought that a good first step to do this research would be to link the amount of anger and hostility directed at different political parties with the number or proportion of prominent women politicians in those political parties. So that's where the research came from. And like so much academic research, it really began this idea that here was this hypothesis that the presence of women politicians might just lower the

00:03:41 - There are so many other things that can cause people to be angry or distrustful or on the other hand, perhaps more conciliatory and trustful beyond the gender of the politicians who they're evaluating. Because of this, we thought it was an interesting hypothesis to investigate, and that's how we began to study this. We really began to see it back in 2018, was a fairly lengthy process, gathering the data

00:04:10 - And it eventually resulted in this, paper that appeared in the year 2020. We have a way of measuring people's, anger and hostility and distrust towards opposing political parties, which quite frankly is a blunt instrument, but it's all we have if we want to study this question across a large number of countries and also over a long time period. and this instrument that we use is something called a thermometer score, where in these national surveys,

Measuring Political Sentiments: A Thermometer Approach

00:04:42 - what political party do you support? and then after that, they're asked to rate their own political party, but also opposing political parties on the scale that runs from zero to 10, where zero indicates that the most cold feelings five is neutral, and 10 is, the warmest possible feelings. So that was the measure that we used. Of course, that only stalls the question by one click because what does the content of a negative

00:05:12 - There are so many things that could indicate including say, policy disagreements with a particular politician or a political party. Alternatively, one might question their competence or their ethics, or one might more broadly question their character and see these people as being simply maligned forces or quite simply evil people who perhaps have authoritarian tendencies, or who have otherwise bad intentions that we don't know.

00:05:44 - that this topic of effective polarization is relatively new. up until about three or four years ago, there were not very many of us working on this, particularly outside the United States. United, I can give you the precise state. When all that changed January 6th, 2021, the day that the American capital was stormed prior to that, the reaction of a lot of scholars to the research that Nom Giron and Will Horn and I

The Impact of Emotional Polarization in Politics

00:06:16 - to be studying people's feelings and, you know, people's feelings aren't really very important. We don't need to worry about people's feelings after January 6th. I think a lot of people change their mind. They suddenly realize that feelings can have consequences and perhaps dangerous and even lethal consequences. But to get back to your broader question there, we don't know precisely what these negative feelings are in the research that we do.

00:06:48 - or how warmly people feel towards their opponents. The precise content of those cold or warm feelings. We don't know. We strongly suspect that it's tied up to a mixture of distrust, contempt, disdain, fear, and even hatred. But exactly where those feelings come from and which ones they are is something that we haven't, made much progress in understanding so far.

00:07:19 - people are expected to evaluate their political opponents, opposing political parties more warmly. If the party they're evaluating has a larger proportion of women members of parliament in the United States, that would mean that they have a larger share of women in Congress in Britain, that they have a larger share of women in the House of Commons and so on. So that's the hypothesis,

Analyzing Political Polarization Through Comparative Surveys

00:07:47 - The data that we used in order to evaluate this hypothesis began with this very large set of surveys, that are collectively labeled the comparative study of electoral systems. And these are surveys that have been conducted that have been collected, across 40 or 50 countries since the mid 1990s. And, we analyzed our data in 20 Western democracies and, the countries that we looked at were, well,

00:08:21 - In these surveys, we collect data, on the survey respondent's party support, which political party they identify with. And then we also collected their ratings of their own party and the, the parties of all the other parties in the system that is all of their political opponents on this zero to 10 scale. So by collecting those data, we had measures of

00:08:53 - of their political opponents, how much Republicans disliked Democrat, the Democratic Party, Democrats disliked the Republican party, conservatives disliked the Labor Party in Britain and so forth. So that was the data that we had from the comparative study of electoral systems to collect the data on the proportion of women members of parliament in each of these parties. Well, we had some data sources,

Analyzing Gender Representation in Parliamentary Data

00:09:23 - And in most cases, it was fairly easy to collect the names of all these members of parliament. Some of the names were very clearly associated with men and women some less clearly. So in which case we had to do more detective work. So the collection of the data on the proportion of men and women in the, in the various parties, that was actually quite time consuming the data from the comparative study of electoral systems.

00:09:54 - We simply had to download the data. We then decided to simply check once we had the data on the proportion of, women members of parliament in each party, we looked to see whether there was in fact a pattern in which the parties that featured a larger proportion of women members of parliament did in fact seem to incite less dislike than the parties that were documented by men.

00:10:24 - that will probably not surprise anyone is that most of these parties across the entire period we looked at from 1996 through 2017, typically featured more men than women in their parliamentary delegations because women back in the mid 1990s and even today, are underrepresented in parliaments even though, the proportion of women members of parliament has been increasing over that period.

Gender Balance and Political Affinity

00:10:56 - that we looked at from the different political parties, some of them featured a roughly even balance of men and women. Some were dominated by men. There were a very small number of parliamentary delegations that featured a significantly greater number of women, but far, far more featured a greater number of men. Overall, the proportion of women in these parliamentary delegations was a little bit below 30%,

00:11:25 - across this period. So we checked and we wanted to see what the pattern looked like. And long story short, what we found that was in that indeed there was a pattern that was consistent with our hypothesis. Namely, the parties that featured more women members of parliament tended to be less sharply disliked than the parties that featured, fewer, women members of parliament. Now, of course, the analysis

00:11:57 - because there are many factors that contribute to a party being liked and disliked beyond the proportion of women in that they feature in their parliamentary delegation. Some of the other features that have been found to matter if you're trying to predict these things, are national economic conditions. People tend to be angrier and express more disdain and hostility towards their opponents when the economy is in

Impact of Party Policies on Public Sentiment

00:12:26 - you, as you would also guess, it also depends on party's policy positions and in particular, if a party has taken less popular positions with respect to prominent issues, debates over economic policy or cultural policy, that will affect how popular the party is. And in particular, there's research suggesting that in recent years, these cultural policy debates over issues such as immigration, abortion, gay marriage,

00:13:00 - to make people especially angry. And in the words of another political scientist, these cultural issues are debates over who we are. Economic debates are over who gets what you can compromise over who gets what. It's much more difficult to compromise over who we are. So we had to account for those things. Other studies have shown that there are other factors, that affect, these, party's degree of popularity, or unpopularity.

00:13:34 - to figure out how well the partisans of a given party, like the other party, you need to take into account governing coalition arrangements. If you have two parties, for example, that are jointly governing the country, then the supporters of each party tend to feel more warmly towards the other party. Similarly, if two parties are both in opposition, the members of each party tend to feel more and warmly.

Impact of Women Politicians on Political Hostility

00:14:03 - and the other's in opposition, then all else equal, the parties tend to feel, much more coldly towards each other, presumably because they're constantly debating and arguing with each other across the island parliament. So we had to take all those factors into account, and indeed we found that these other factors matter too. There's a big effect related to, the party's policy positions. There's also a very large effect, relating

00:14:36 - but even accounting for these other factors, there was a consistent detectable effect. Parties that had more women elicited less hostility than parties that were dominated by men. The representation of women in parliament has been increasing across time, and I would expect that trend to continue. And notably, there are some political parties, especially over the past 10 years on the left. These tend to be green parties

00:15:06 - that have actually instituted formal gender quotas for their candidates. That is that they need to have an even mix of, male and female candidates, or sometimes the quota is not set precisely at 50%. But the point is that there are some parties that have formally committed that they're going to nominate a significant number of women candidates. For that reason, I expect the representation of women to continue to grow over time.

Rising Female Representation in Education and Politics

00:15:38 - our own research and in some ways the field of politics, that there's this increasing trend, particularly in the United States, among young people, that young men are struggling compared to young women at the university where I teach now the University of California Davis, roughly 60% of the undergraduate students are women. And indeed across universities in the United States, women sharply outnumber men.

00:16:10 - among those who do go to college. It seems therefore that women are highly likely to continue to rise within all different fields, not simply politics, but also the law, science, education business, and so on. As women continue to succeed and as the younger women in our society, grow older and to the ages age where they're likely to hold national office, it seems likely that the proportion

00:16:42 - will rise over time. One additional factor that surely contributes to this is that the popular resistance against electing women has been melting over the last several decades. The proportion of people, for example, in public opinion polls who state that they feel that women should not hold elective office, or that, men tend to be better qualified than women has been shrinking dramatically over

Anticipating Gender Equality in Political Leadership

00:17:11 - For all of this reason, I expect the representation of women in national parliaments to continue to increase. Notably, of course, we have seen a number of prominent women leaders, at the level of, president in the United, in, of, president or in many cases, prime minister in Britain. Of course, you've had Margaret Thatcher and Theresa May, you had Angela Merkel, who, was dubbed until she stepped down,

00:17:45 - you had Hillary Clinton who won the popular vote in 2016, but lost the electoral college. And of course, it's quite possible that three years from now we will have an American President-elect, Kamala Harris. So as women become more visible in high level positions such as members of Parliament and in the very top position as Prime Minister or possibly president of the United States, I expect

00:18:34 - that women can be effective leaders and can contribute to our national politics will continue to erode. And I fully expect that within 30 or 40 years, hopefully I will live long enough to see it. We will see national parliaments, and governing cabinets that are essentially gender equal.

Faculti AI can make mistakes

Faculti

Popular in Social Sciences

Macroeconomic modelling of CBDC: a critical review

Financing Private Credit

Failing Banks

The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place

Keeping the Republic

Entrepreneurial thinking: the politics and practice of policy impact

Can’t We All Just Get Along? How Women MPs Can Ameliorate Affective Polarization in Western Publics

Next in Political Science

Guide

Platform and Category Pages

Contact Us

FAQs

What is Faculti?

How do you select interviews?

Interview Process

Page Structure

Popular in Social Sciences

Guide

Platform and Category Pages

Contact Us

FAQs

What is Faculti?

How do you select interviews?

Interview Process

Accessibility Options

Contrast Adjustment

Text Size Adjustment

Text Spacing Adjustment

Line Height Adjustment

Cursor Size Adjustment

Page Structure Options

Page Structure