Popular in Sociology

Social Identities and Divisions

A new explanation of antisemitism: Jew hatred as a civilisational phenomenon

Boston University Liah Greenfeld

Culture and Society

The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place

New York University Harvey Moltoch

Culture and Society

Carceral Entrapments: Views from the Prison/Street Interface in India

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Mahuya Bandyopadhya

Culture and Society

Pre-problem families: predictive analytics and the future as the present

University of Southampton Rosalind Edwards

Ethnicity and Racism

Were Muslim Barbarians Really Knocking On the Gates of Ontario?

University of Ottawa Natasha Bakht

Culture and Society

Poor People’s Survival Strategies

The University of Texas at Austin Javier Auyero

Ethnicity and Racism

Sociology of Whiteness

Arizona State University Monica McDermott

Racism within the Canadian University

View more insights in Social Sciences - Sociology - Ethnicity and Racism

View more figures from McMaster University

View the page of Kerry Bailey

Read the Study

Next in Ethnicity and Racism

The Battle for the Black Mind

Karida Leigh | Emory University

Managing racism? Race equality and decolonial educational futures

Suki Ali | London School of Economics

Kerry Bailey discusses the investigation and understanding of the impact that everyday racism/microaggressions can have on the academic experience of Indigenous students.

Image courtesy of interviewee. March 13, 2024

Log-in or Sign-up to Faculti
Currently viewing this subject insight as a guest. You have insight(s) remaining for this month. Login to view 8000+ figures on the platform.

Generating Workspace...

Export as PDF

This video video discusses a study focusing on the experiences and perceptions of Indigenous university students in Canada regarding racism within the context of post-secondary education. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical backdrop of colonization and systemic racism in Canada, which significantly impacts Indigenous peoples. The study highlights that colonial structures extend into universities, affecting the experiences of Indigenous students who face ongoing racism, marginalization, and discriminatory practices.

The research includes interviews with Indigenous students, revealing high levels of anti-Indigenous racism across universities. Key themes identified include challenging in-class experiences, negative interactions with professors, difficult social dynamics, and systemic racism within university institutions. Students report a lack of cultural sensitivity and frequent microaggressions, as well as overtly racist remarks. The study underscores the resilience of Indigenous students who actively seek to create safe spaces, advocate for their rights, and push for systemic changes within their academic environments, despite the challenges they encounter.

Additionally, the text details gaps in previous research, highlighting the need for qualitative studies that consider the lived experiences of Indigenous students. It calls for further investigation into the effectiveness of reconciliation initiatives in Canadian universities, asking whether changes have been merely performative and questioning how to disrupt colonial hierarchies within these institutions. The overarching finding is that Indigenous students are committed to advocating for change and improving the educational experience for future generations, despite the ongoing challenges they face within an entrenched system of racism and inequality.

Language:

Export as PDF

Export as PDF
Here are some similar articles based on the themes and topics discussed in your video regarding Indigenous university students and their experiences with racism in Canada:

1. **"Decolonizing Higher Education: The Role of Indigenous Pedagogies"**
This article explores the integration of Indigenous methodologies and pedagogies in post-secondary institutions. It discusses the importance of creating inclusive educational environments that acknowledge and respect Indigenous knowledge systems to combat systemic racism and improve student experiences.

2. **"Racism in Canadian Universities: The Experiences of Racialized Students"**
This research investigates the presence of racism in Canadian universities and includes narratives from various racialized groups, focusing on the commonalities and specific challenges faced by Indigenous students compared to other minorities.

3. **"Indigenous Resilience and Activism in Higher Education: Overcoming Barriers"**
This article reviews Indigenous student-led movements within universities that aim to address and dismantle systemic racism. It highlights success stories and strategies adopted by students to create supportive communities and advocate for institutional change.

4. **"The Impact of Systemic Racism on Indigenous Students in Canada: A Qualitative Analysis"**
Focused on qualitative research, this study delves into the lived experiences of Indigenous students, detailing their struggles with systemic barriers and the psychological impacts of racism within academic settings.

5. **"Navigating Whiteness in Canada: Indigenous Voices in Academia"**
This article discusses the interactions and relationships between Indigenous students and predominantly white academic environments, highlighting the complexities of navigating identity, racism, and exclusion.

6. **"Challenges and Successes of Indigenous Engagement in Canadian Higher Education"**
This piece evaluates various programs and initiatives aimed at improving Indigenous engagement and representation in universities, critically assessing their effectiveness and the ongoing challenges faced by Indigenous students.

7. **"Cultural Safety in Post-Secondary Education: Addressing the Needs of Indigenous Students"**
This article emphasizes the importance of cultural safety in academic settings, discussing policies and practices that can create safe learning environments for Indigenous students to thrive.

8. **"Performative Reconciliation in Academia: Assessing Initiatives for Indigenous Inclusion"**
This research critiques the reconciliation efforts in Canadian universities, questioning their authenticity and effectiveness in creating meaningful change for Indigenous students.

These articles cover similar themes like systemic racism, Indigenous student experiences, advocacy, and the need for qualitative research in the convideo of higher education in Canada.

X-TIMESTAMP-MAP:LOCAL=00:00:00.000,MPEGTS=900000

00:00.000 --> 00:02.445
Context for this study is a complicated one

00:02.755 --> 00:03.765
with multiple layers.

00:04.355 --> 00:05.445
This study examines

00:05.445 --> 00:08.445
how indigenous university students in Canada perceive

00:08.545 --> 00:10.285
and experience and manage the racism

00:10.475 --> 00:11.845
that they face in that context.

00:12.625 --> 00:14.365
But you have to begin looking at

00:14.385 --> 00:16.365
and acknowledging the history of Canada first

00:16.505 --> 00:19.925
before you can look more specifically at that environment.

00:20.665 --> 00:22.205
The history of Canada is not something

00:22.205 --> 00:25.005
that I can adequately address here today in this interview,

00:25.425 --> 00:26.845
not comprehensively.

00:26.915 --> 00:29.445
However, I will touch on a couple of main points

00:29.445 --> 00:30.565
that are very relevant.

00:31.305 --> 00:33.165
So in Canada, there's a long history

00:33.165 --> 00:34.685
of colonization and racism.

00:35.355 --> 00:38.605
This travels back to the very origins of the country itself

00:38.705 --> 00:41.605
and is in fact the bedrock that the country was built upon.

00:42.745 --> 00:44.605
And over time, the processes

00:45.025 --> 00:48.165
of settler colonialism have severely harmed indigenous

00:48.275 --> 00:51.805
peoples who live on this lands on all levels spiritually

00:51.905 --> 00:54.685
as individuals, community members, nation members.

00:55.425 --> 00:58.285
Uh, these harms are too many to mention comprehensively,

00:58.345 --> 01:00.885
but do include stolen land, stolen children,

01:01.345 --> 01:05.565
broken promises, implementation of racist laws and policies,

01:05.665 --> 01:08.845
and both historical and temporary contemporary attempts

01:08.945 --> 01:10.125
at elimination.

01:10.895 --> 01:14.285
These processes of colonization are not simply historical,

01:14.705 --> 01:18.285
as many seem to believe they are ever present structures

01:18.515 --> 01:20.525
that are systemically embedded within

01:20.525 --> 01:22.285
contemporary Canadian society.

01:22.945 --> 01:26.405
So we must learn and understand colonial operations both

01:26.515 --> 01:29.845
past and present before we can begin comprehending how

01:29.845 --> 01:34.555
that plays out in our everyday lives, particularly in terms

01:34.575 --> 01:36.115
of racism, inequality,

01:36.215 --> 01:39.435
and the continued marginalization of indigenous peoples.

01:40.215 --> 01:43.075
Canada is often known internationally as peacekeepers

01:43.105 --> 01:45.315
with focus on equality and justice,

01:45.975 --> 01:48.715
but this view is ignorant to the ongoing marginalization

01:48.815 --> 01:50.195
of indigenous peoples

01:50.295 --> 01:53.275
and the pervasive racism that continues across the nation.

01:54.455 --> 01:55.635
So up to this point,

01:56.065 --> 01:58.395
I've been speaking about the larger Canadian context.

01:58.745 --> 02:01.875
However, this study zooms in to examine the context

02:02.015 --> 02:04.755
of post-secondary institutions across the nation.

02:05.615 --> 02:06.835
The grander Canadian context

02:07.055 --> 02:08.315
and the more focused context

02:08.375 --> 02:10.555
of this study are intimately connected,

02:10.555 --> 02:13.075
which is why I began on that more general level.

02:13.815 --> 02:15.115
The colonial structures

02:15.115 --> 02:17.075
and the attached racial ideologies

02:17.425 --> 02:18.595
that were the building blocks

02:18.655 --> 02:20.675
for Canada were also the building blocks

02:20.815 --> 02:22.235
for Canadian universities,

02:22.295 --> 02:24.195
and they continue to invade those spaces.

02:25.775 --> 02:27.835
Now, when looking at the post-secondary context,

02:28.345 --> 02:31.075
there's a lot of variation across institutions.

02:31.645 --> 02:34.515
After the Truth and Reconciliation Commission released their

02:34.515 --> 02:38.595
final report in 2015, there became a new

02:38.895 --> 02:41.995
and vast movement across the country within universities

02:42.055 --> 02:43.995
to start addressing the calls to action

02:44.335 --> 02:46.995
and start addressing the concept of reconciliation.

02:47.665 --> 02:50.595
However, these changes varied greatly depending on the

02:50.795 --> 02:53.835
province, depending on the institution where they began

02:53.835 --> 02:56.955
to make change, how quickly those changes advanced were

02:56.955 --> 02:59.155
extremely different across institutions.

03:00.435 --> 03:02.845
Some institutions develop strategies such

03:02.845 --> 03:05.685
as implementing land acknowledgements, inclusion

03:05.705 --> 03:09.285
of mandatory indigenous learning content, increased hiring

03:09.305 --> 03:10.405
of indigenous faculty,

03:10.705 --> 03:13.005
and increased creation of indigenous spaces,

03:13.705 --> 03:17.165
and also the creation of indigenous insight committees.

03:17.825 --> 03:21.405
Now, arguably these are all very positive steps and changes,

03:21.865 --> 03:24.165
but what has come to light is that the outcomes

03:24.225 --> 03:27.685
of these changes, what is often called reconciliatory

03:27.915 --> 03:30.165
initiatives, have not been consistent

03:30.265 --> 03:31.725
and not consistently positive.

03:32.995 --> 03:35.295
So within the Canadian University context,

03:36.095 --> 03:38.375
indigenous students have been working for decades

03:38.955 --> 03:41.935
to secure access to secure power and space.

03:42.365 --> 03:45.615
However, many institutions continue to center

03:45.795 --> 03:48.055
and normalize Eurocentric ideologies.

03:48.565 --> 03:50.575
This can create environments that are dangerous

03:50.595 --> 03:53.735
for indigenous students, and by using the term dangerous,

03:54.175 --> 03:56.455
I am including concerns for physical, mental,

03:56.755 --> 03:57.815
and community safety.

03:59.235 --> 04:02.175
Now, indigenous post-secondary students show resilience,

04:02.775 --> 04:05.655
determination and extreme perseverance on a daily basis.

04:06.315 --> 04:07.855
Within these institutions,

04:07.985 --> 04:09.975
indigenous students are pushing forward,

04:10.255 --> 04:14.055
securing safe spaces, continuing to demand equity

04:14.115 --> 04:17.455
and visibility, and through ongoing advocacy,

04:17.605 --> 04:19.535
they're battling for success both

04:19.535 --> 04:20.935
personally and academically.

04:21.245 --> 04:23.095
When looking at previous literature

04:23.095 --> 04:24.695
regarding indigenous peoples

04:24.695 --> 04:28.415
and education in Canada, there is a large body of evidence

04:28.415 --> 04:30.935
that shows significant discrepancies in

04:31.535 --> 04:32.775
achieved education outcomes.

04:33.595 --> 04:37.095
Uh, some statistical analyses have revealed disparities

04:37.095 --> 04:39.575
that show that potentially less than 10%

04:39.635 --> 04:43.335
of the indigenous population are achieving post-secondary

04:43.485 --> 04:46.775
degrees or completing that level of education, whereas

04:47.605 --> 04:50.615
this is compared to approximately 27%

04:50.915 --> 04:53.175
of the non-indigenous population achieving

04:53.175 --> 04:54.535
that level of education.

04:55.635 --> 04:57.095
Now, we know through investigation

04:57.155 --> 05:00.055
and a lot of different research that higher levels

05:00.155 --> 05:04.175
of education are directly related to improved standards

05:04.175 --> 05:07.895
of living, greater employment satisfaction, higher incomes,

05:08.275 --> 05:09.295
and improved health.

05:09.875 --> 05:11.375
And so the lived impact

05:11.375 --> 05:13.815
of these disparities are extremely significant.

05:14.795 --> 05:17.375
Uh, further research studies have demonstrated

05:17.405 --> 05:20.335
that at post-secondary institutions in both Canada

05:20.515 --> 05:22.495
and the United States, ethnic

05:22.495 --> 05:25.415
and racial discrimination continue to be ubiquitous,

05:25.845 --> 05:28.255
including issues such as exclusion,

05:28.485 --> 05:30.095
isolation, and marginality.

05:31.335 --> 05:34.535
Hor research studies also support serious concerns

05:34.535 --> 05:37.535
regarding institutional rhetoric rather than action

05:38.155 --> 05:40.495
and academic, a way of describing a lot of words

05:40.555 --> 05:41.655
and a lot of written policy

05:41.765 --> 05:43.655
with not enough legitimate change.

05:44.955 --> 05:46.135
Uh, much of the data

05:46.245 --> 05:49.455
regarding indigenous university students in Canada has been

05:49.455 --> 05:52.415
based within quantitative studies rather than qualitative,

05:52.805 --> 05:55.695
with minimal attention given to the lived experience

05:55.695 --> 05:56.775
of the indigenous students

05:57.385 --> 06:00.525
and how these experiences connect to systemic racism

06:00.785 --> 06:01.925
and settler colonialism.

06:02.825 --> 06:04.925
Um, however, I will mention today a couple

06:04.925 --> 06:08.525
of previous studies that also centralized expert testimony

06:08.525 --> 06:11.165
of indigenous students when looking at the relational

06:11.165 --> 06:13.845
experiences they're having within those environments.

06:14.745 --> 06:18.005
Um, in 2014, Clark's team published a study

06:18.005 --> 06:19.445
that looked at the racial climate

06:19.545 --> 06:22.045
of one research-based Canadian university.

06:22.575 --> 06:24.325
After completing six interviews,

06:24.715 --> 06:26.805
they identified five major themes

06:26.825 --> 06:30.045
of experience including unconstrained, voyeurism,

06:30.155 --> 06:33.405
jealous accusations, cultural elimination

06:33.585 --> 06:38.085
or misrepresentation expectations of primi and isolation.

06:38.715 --> 06:42.085
Following that, I myself began researching in this area

06:42.235 --> 06:44.685
with a published study in 2016,

06:45.385 --> 06:47.205
and this study further investigated

06:47.205 --> 06:48.925
indigenous students experiences.

06:49.545 --> 06:52.725
It extended the research done by Clark's team in terms

06:52.725 --> 06:54.365
of the scope of investigation

06:54.865 --> 06:57.045
and furthering understandings of everyday racism

06:57.345 --> 07:00.325
and microaggression directed toward indigenous students.

07:01.285 --> 07:02.805
17 interviews were completed

07:02.825 --> 07:04.525
and additional themes were highlighted

07:04.625 --> 07:08.685
to further support this research, including very low levels

07:08.825 --> 07:10.685
of interaction between indigenous

07:10.945 --> 07:13.845
and non-indigenous students, audience effects

07:13.845 --> 07:15.085
that affected behavior

07:15.665 --> 07:18.325
and the persistence of racism in both in class,

07:18.325 --> 07:21.405
administrative and social realms across the university.

07:22.595 --> 07:24.005
Then in 2019,

07:24.235 --> 07:27.325
Johanna's team published another qualitative based study

07:27.755 --> 07:30.605
looking at, focus groups and interviews,

07:31.025 --> 07:34.565
and again, expanding understandings of overt discrimination,

07:34.755 --> 07:37.085
assumptions of intellectual inferiority,

07:37.925 --> 07:40.525
constant invalidation, racial segregation,

07:40.985 --> 07:43.125
and how the myth of meritocracy was

07:43.125 --> 07:44.565
operating within those zones.

07:45.105 --> 07:48.725
One of the things Yohanna's team strongly noted was very

07:48.725 --> 07:51.365
little support for indigenous students from faculty

07:51.865 --> 07:53.805
and staff, and in fact,

07:53.835 --> 07:57.565
individuals in those positions were often, came

07:57.565 --> 07:59.685
to be known as the origin of those experiences

07:59.755 --> 08:01.205
with overt discrimination.

08:02.465 --> 08:06.525
In 2022 F Moff published a study looking at the impacts

08:06.705 --> 08:08.405
of the indigenization process.

08:08.635 --> 08:11.325
This was one of the many movements that came

08:11.335 --> 08:14.245
after the TRC published their final report.

08:14.825 --> 08:18.605
Um, after completing 10 in-person interviews, ECMA found

08:18.605 --> 08:19.805
that there were both positive

08:19.905 --> 08:21.685
and negative outcomes from

08:22.245 --> 08:24.445
participation within these processes

08:24.825 --> 08:28.125
and called it a paradoxical pursuit, outlining

08:28.125 --> 08:29.205
that while including

08:29.345 --> 08:31.125
and supporting the indigenous students,

08:31.495 --> 08:33.965
their participation in these processes was

08:33.995 --> 08:35.245
also causing them harm.

08:36.745 --> 08:39.245
The current study under discussion builds upon those

08:39.245 --> 08:40.965
findings by increasing the number

08:40.965 --> 08:42.765
of indigenous students interviewed

08:42.785 --> 08:46.045
and including multiple university contexts for comparison.

08:46.915 --> 08:49.325
This created a more comprehensive understanding

08:49.435 --> 08:52.365
regarding the nature of indigenous students' experiences

08:52.365 --> 08:53.885
with racism and discrimination,

08:54.505 --> 08:56.325
its operations and its impacts.

08:56.945 --> 08:58.925
It also highlights the numerous ways

08:59.155 --> 09:01.085
that indigenous students are advocating

09:01.145 --> 09:04.605
and persevering with a determined focus on bettering

09:04.605 --> 09:07.205
post-secondary institutions for future generations.

09:07.585 --> 09:09.965
The data for this project was drawn from

09:10.485 --> 09:14.765
ethnographic observation interviews and demographic surveys.

09:15.265 --> 09:19.165
So T'S project 27 in-person interviews were completed

09:19.165 --> 09:23.085
with indigenous students at three different universities in

09:23.185 --> 09:24.605
the province of Ontario Canada.

09:25.305 --> 09:27.725
Two of the universities were located in the southern region

09:28.035 --> 09:30.365
with one university located in the north.

09:31.065 --> 09:33.965
The interviews were spread fairly evenly across these

09:33.965 --> 09:37.645
interviews or across these universities with 10

09:37.705 --> 09:40.645
or nine interviews being done at the southern universities

09:41.105 --> 09:42.845
and the following eight being done at

09:42.845 --> 09:43.885
the one found in the north.

09:44.515 --> 09:46.965
16 of the students were female, 11 were male.

09:47.665 --> 09:51.365
12 lived on reserve lands prior to relocating,

09:51.385 --> 09:53.045
for their post-secondary education,

09:53.505 --> 09:55.645
and their ages ranged from 19 years old

09:55.645 --> 09:56.965
to over 70 years old.

09:57.595 --> 10:01.165
Each interviewee also completed a short demographic survey.

10:02.065 --> 10:04.805
Now when working with post-secondary within the

10:04.805 --> 10:07.405
post-secondary context, one has to be aware

10:07.405 --> 10:11.085
that at each institution the indigenous student body is

10:11.085 --> 10:13.365
drawn from many different communities and lands.

10:13.705 --> 10:16.485
And then beyond that, each institution supports

10:16.545 --> 10:19.245
and commits to having different compositions

10:19.245 --> 10:21.685
of indigenous led student groups or committees.

10:22.145 --> 10:24.165
So it's in really important to note these variations

10:25.025 --> 10:27.405
in place, space, language, community,

10:27.405 --> 10:30.445
and beliefs that are all encompassed within this description

10:30.785 --> 10:34.085
of an indigenous student community at each institution.

10:34.985 --> 10:37.525
Uh, after carefully following ethics board

10:37.585 --> 10:39.565
and indigenous review panel protocols,

10:39.705 --> 10:41.005
administrative context,

10:41.235 --> 10:43.445
then disseminated my project information

10:43.445 --> 10:45.365
through email list serves so

10:45.365 --> 10:47.685
that indigenous students could choose whether they wanted

10:47.685 --> 10:50.005
to volunteer and participate in the project

10:50.995 --> 10:52.445
once the interviews had begun,

10:52.595 --> 10:55.605
further interviewees were then recruited using the snowball

10:55.965 --> 10:58.285
sampling technique to participate.

10:58.385 --> 11:00.285
The students were required to self-identify

11:00.385 --> 11:02.925
as ident indigenous and to be in their second year

11:02.925 --> 11:04.605
of university or higher.

11:05.385 --> 11:08.005
And the in-person interviews were semi-structured

11:08.275 --> 11:09.885
with participants being welcomed

11:10.145 --> 11:13.165
and encouraged to take the the reins to take the direction

11:13.165 --> 11:15.965
of those interviews to bring forward the information they

11:16.245 --> 11:17.845
considered to be the most relevant.

11:18.495 --> 11:21.605
Throughout the project, I used a grounded theory approach,

11:21.865 --> 11:25.165
so I was continuously moving between the interview data

11:25.745 --> 11:26.765
and the interview structure

11:26.865 --> 11:30.005
and questions adjusting the structure as new questions

11:30.065 --> 11:31.845
and analytical themes emerged,

11:32.225 --> 11:35.205
and this allowed me to more deeply examine the aspects

11:35.225 --> 11:37.365
of experience that were highlighted as important

11:37.625 --> 11:38.765
by the interviewees.

11:39.355 --> 11:41.285
Then once the interviews were completed

11:41.305 --> 11:45.205
and transcribed, I used Atlas TI to do a thematic analysis

11:46.625 --> 11:49.445
to further enhance the comprehensive nature of the data.

11:49.965 --> 11:52.685
I spent time experiencing the university environment,

11:53.365 --> 11:55.805
spending time on the campus of each institution.

11:56.185 --> 11:58.365
So this included visiting both learning

11:58.425 --> 12:00.965
and social spaces on campus, listening

12:00.965 --> 12:02.125
to course instruction,

12:02.515 --> 12:05.765
attending indigenous led student events, and observing

12:05.765 --> 12:08.005
and creating detailed notes in all of those spaces.

12:08.385 --> 12:13.205
Of the 27 students interviewed 93% reported experiencing

12:13.315 --> 12:16.085
anti indigenous racism within the university context.

12:16.895 --> 12:20.125
These experiences were described as frequent and recurrent.

12:20.515 --> 12:22.885
They're representing very sizable barriers.

12:24.105 --> 12:26.165
The indigenous students described four areas

12:26.225 --> 12:28.925
or themes that framed their experiences within this

12:28.925 --> 12:31.525
environment, and then they described the barriers

12:31.715 --> 12:33.085
contained within these areas.

12:33.945 --> 12:37.005
The four areas were outlined as in-class experiences,

12:37.545 --> 12:41.085
direct interactions with professors, social interactions,

12:41.225 --> 12:44.325
and then engaging the university institution itself

12:45.495 --> 12:48.755
within the university classroom, the high levels of racism

12:49.015 --> 12:51.435
and the similarities in the way then that the racism

12:52.095 --> 12:53.475
is operating its nature

12:54.055 --> 12:56.995
was consistent across all three universities in question.

12:57.775 --> 13:00.715
The in-class experiences were extremely challenging,

13:01.005 --> 13:03.395
often eliciting great frustration, anger,

13:03.495 --> 13:04.835
and upset for the students

13:05.745 --> 13:09.155
that included facing openly declared statements of racism,

13:10.115 --> 13:13.075
demonstrations of ignorance regarding Canada's relationship,

13:13.415 --> 13:16.395
current and past with indigenous peoples.

13:17.135 --> 13:20.835
Um, open disrespect, important community elders, continuous

13:20.835 --> 13:23.795
and ongoing microaggressions and misrepresentation

13:23.855 --> 13:27.195
or erasure of indigenous peoples within curriculums.

13:28.395 --> 13:31.005
Serious concerns were raised by the majority

13:31.065 --> 13:34.485
of interviewees about the university classroom being a safe

13:34.545 --> 13:36.725
and productive space for indigenous students.

13:37.925 --> 13:41.335
Experiences of racism in the classroom take a heavy toll on

13:41.335 --> 13:44.855
indigenous students and in some cases threaten their ability

13:44.915 --> 13:46.615
to further pursue their education.

13:47.435 --> 13:49.455
One female indigenous student was told

13:49.455 --> 13:52.415
that her communication style was not deemed appropriate

13:52.565 --> 13:54.575
despite evidence of her exceptional skills.

13:55.235 --> 13:56.495
She was failed from her program

13:57.035 --> 13:58.615
and told she could not continue

13:58.825 --> 14:02.095
until she participated in additional communication training

14:02.235 --> 14:05.215
at her own expense and was taught,

14:05.355 --> 14:07.095
and I quote how to be white.

14:08.495 --> 14:12.115
Now, in terms with interactions directly with professors,

14:12.285 --> 14:15.435
these experiences differed from the more general in-class

14:15.465 --> 14:18.595
experiences as they reflect interactions

14:18.785 --> 14:19.795
with the professors.

14:20.555 --> 14:24.075
Specifically, some of the problematic experiences identified

14:24.755 --> 14:26.515
included lack of cultural sensitivity

14:26.775 --> 14:28.115
and inability to deal

14:28.115 --> 14:30.395
with racially charged in class situations.

14:31.245 --> 14:33.835
Often professors would rely on indigenous students

14:33.895 --> 14:36.635
to guide course content regarding indigenous peoples,

14:36.635 --> 14:39.115
sometimes even teaching those parts of the courses.

14:39.495 --> 14:42.995
For them. This caused the students to be singled out,

14:43.145 --> 14:44.275
feel extreme stress,

14:44.775 --> 14:48.155
and also to experience a high level of pressure to represent

14:48.385 --> 14:51.765
what I've already established is a very diverse indigenous

14:51.765 --> 14:52.805
student population.

14:53.915 --> 14:57.045
Many students also described instances where the racist

14:57.185 --> 14:59.765
or ignorant comment came directly from the professor

14:59.765 --> 15:03.525
themselves and others highlighted discrimination they faced

15:03.525 --> 15:06.125
from professors when the students wanted to include

15:06.225 --> 15:08.365
and incorporate indigenous knowledge in into their

15:08.365 --> 15:11.685
assignments being told it was simply personal opinion

15:12.025 --> 15:13.205
and not fact or data.

15:14.085 --> 15:15.115
These experiences

15:15.175 --> 15:17.435
and interactions present critical barriers

15:17.575 --> 15:20.075
to not only secure and safe learning spaces,

15:20.775 --> 15:22.835
but also to positive achievements

15:22.855 --> 15:25.355
and course completion in the social environment.

15:25.625 --> 15:28.795
Experiences of interpersonal racism were least common,

15:29.065 --> 15:31.515
however, the personal narratives brought forward

15:31.695 --> 15:34.275
by the students presented very valuable insights.

15:35.665 --> 15:39.305
Examples of indigenous students being exoticized, instances

15:39.405 --> 15:42.545
of brutally explicit overt racism from non-indigenous

15:42.825 --> 15:47.225
students, even experiencing racism within university led

15:47.225 --> 15:48.665
extracurricular activities.

15:49.405 --> 15:51.265
One student shared how when warming up

15:51.265 --> 15:52.905
for her university lacrosse game,

15:53.605 --> 15:55.705
the coach demanded in front of the entire team

15:56.095 --> 15:59.225
that she let out, and I quote her savage call.

15:59.735 --> 16:01.145
This led to her being singled out

16:01.405 --> 16:03.385
and being laughed at in front of the entire team.

16:04.795 --> 16:07.345
These social experiences were much more direct

16:07.485 --> 16:08.705
and elicited strong

16:08.705 --> 16:11.145
and immediate responses from the indigenous students

16:11.145 --> 16:14.465
themselves, and there's no question of the barrier

16:14.465 --> 16:15.465
that these presented.

16:15.965 --> 16:18.105
To continue the lacrosse team example,

16:18.375 --> 16:19.705
this student petitioned the coach

16:19.705 --> 16:23.305
and the team leadership to embed anti-racism policy

16:23.865 --> 16:25.945
directly into their team code of conduct.

16:26.525 --> 16:28.945
And after months and months of no action being taken,

16:29.325 --> 16:31.625
she quit the team for her own welfare and safety.

16:32.605 --> 16:35.465
The third zone of experience encompassed encounters

16:36.345 --> 16:38.305
systemic racism that occurred when engaging

16:38.415 --> 16:40.825
with the university At the institutional level,

16:41.515 --> 16:44.585
these concerns varied greatly in terms of both the nature

16:44.765 --> 16:46.545
and the source within the institution.

16:46.775 --> 16:50.545
However, what connects these experiences is systemically

16:50.905 --> 16:52.225
embedded barriers that appear

16:52.225 --> 16:55.385
to be rooted in anti indigenous racism and discrimination.

16:56.295 --> 16:58.625
Some examples included being told

16:58.625 --> 17:01.545
that indigenous led initiatives were not worth funding.

17:02.245 --> 17:05.185
An example of a systemic move toward elimination

17:06.185 --> 17:08.875
mismanagement by the university of banned funding

17:08.935 --> 17:12.315
for tuition, which led to delays in access, stress,

17:12.335 --> 17:15.875
and significant interest charges, lack of staff

17:15.935 --> 17:17.555
and infrastructure to lead courses

17:17.665 --> 17:19.835
that the universities themselves had promoted

17:20.175 --> 17:22.995
as having indigenous content, and

17:22.995 --> 17:24.595
therefore these courses being canceled

17:24.775 --> 17:26.755
and impacting education opportunities

17:27.695 --> 17:29.035
or even universities pushing

17:29.035 --> 17:32.475
through policy changes without properly informing the

17:32.475 --> 17:34.795
general student body and the faculty of the direction

17:34.795 --> 17:38.755
and the purpose resulting in severe negative racial backlash

17:39.475 --> 17:40.875
directly towards indigenous students.

17:41.365 --> 17:43.355
There were so many personal stories shared

17:43.355 --> 17:45.635
where intersectionality played a critical role,

17:46.335 --> 17:49.075
the intersection of numerous social positions coming

17:49.405 --> 17:52.045
together to alter individual's lived experience.

17:52.665 --> 17:55.405
Gender brought forward some very important variations,

17:55.875 --> 17:57.445
both positive and negative.

17:58.205 --> 18:01.185
Female students mentioned the positive impact

18:01.185 --> 18:03.665
of indigenous female leaders within the university

18:03.665 --> 18:06.745
institution and also having great opportunities

18:06.805 --> 18:08.145
for community involvement.

18:08.615 --> 18:11.945
However, female students also spoke to their subjugation

18:11.965 --> 18:13.425
to male indigenous students

18:14.285 --> 18:16.225
and female students who are mothers.

18:16.225 --> 18:19.425
Described many additional complexities and burdens.

18:19.935 --> 18:22.905
This research data has expanded understandings of

18:22.925 --> 18:25.785
how anti indigenous racism continues

18:25.785 --> 18:27.465
to operate within higher education.

18:28.005 --> 18:29.145
It has shown that the levels

18:29.245 --> 18:31.625
of anti indigenous racism are very high

18:32.085 --> 18:35.185
and pervasive across different areas of the university

18:35.285 --> 18:38.585
and also between different university institutions.

18:39.925 --> 18:42.395
Along with supporting the themes highlighted in my initial

18:42.395 --> 18:46.635
study from 2016, two additional themes were identified.

18:47.095 --> 18:50.235
The fluid nature of how the racism is operating.

18:51.115 --> 18:52.555
Shifting in between covert

18:52.555 --> 18:55.235
and overt depending on external variables

18:55.815 --> 18:57.955
and how the negative impact impacts

18:57.955 --> 19:01.635
of racism can be amplified when experiences overflowed

19:01.635 --> 19:04.915
simultaneously into multiple areas of the university

19:05.135 --> 19:06.595
or multiple thematic areas.

19:07.215 --> 19:10.675
The consistency and validity of the research data suggests

19:10.675 --> 19:13.715
that anti indigenous racism may be a concern amongst

19:14.555 --> 19:16.635
Canadian post-secondary institutions.

19:16.705 --> 19:19.515
More widely and further research should pursue this.

19:19.985 --> 19:22.395
Most interviewees reported their perception

19:22.665 --> 19:24.955
that the racism they experienced was a result

19:24.955 --> 19:26.635
of ignorance and misinformation.

19:27.415 --> 19:30.075
As racism becomes enmeshed within the systems

19:30.255 --> 19:32.715
and institutions that govern our everyday life,

19:33.185 --> 19:35.475
individuals themselves are unaware

19:35.575 --> 19:37.515
of the ideologies that they're operating within.

19:38.845 --> 19:41.115
These systemic structural elements

19:41.175 --> 19:44.675
of racism perpetuate preexisting inequalities

19:44.705 --> 19:47.955
through manifestations such as invisibility of the other

19:48.455 --> 19:51.395
and stereotypical portrayals or misrepresentations.

19:53.105 --> 19:56.345
A highly significant finding within the data encompassed the

19:56.585 --> 19:57.745
strength, perseverance,

19:57.765 --> 19:59.945
and ongoing commitments to advocacy

20:00.285 --> 20:01.505
by the indigenous students.

20:02.335 --> 20:05.505
This data exemplifies the many ways in which indigenous

20:05.865 --> 20:08.705
students are refusing to accept the settler colonial

20:08.705 --> 20:09.985
project of elimination.

20:11.105 --> 20:14.305
Repeatedly within the data, students describe a shared sense

20:14.305 --> 20:15.345
of responsibility

20:15.345 --> 20:17.465
and determination that appears

20:17.465 --> 20:20.225
to override the additional weight responsibility

20:20.245 --> 20:23.265
and fatigue, but not without cost to those individuals.

20:24.215 --> 20:26.945
With the nationwide focus on reconciliation,

20:27.095 --> 20:29.665
that was brought about by the TRC report

20:30.085 --> 20:32.825
and the many positive initiatives for reconciliation

20:32.825 --> 20:35.825
that emerged at Canadian universities across the country.

20:36.865 --> 20:40.585
The question arises as to why the levels of both systemic

20:40.805 --> 20:44.785
and interpersonal anti indigenous racism are still so high

20:44.925 --> 20:46.265
as is reflected in the data.

20:47.275 --> 20:49.085
Have the changes remained performative?

20:49.585 --> 20:51.605
Are the changes based only in policy

20:51.745 --> 20:54.965
and content rather than doing the work of unsettling

20:55.475 --> 20:59.005
Eurocentric teaching, why are universities not following

20:59.005 --> 21:00.925
through with the necessary financial support

21:00.985 --> 21:02.525
and infrastructure requirements?

21:02.895 --> 21:05.685
These are critical questions for future research.

21:06.385 --> 21:09.085
It is imperative to investigate further how

21:09.105 --> 21:12.365
and where colonial hierarchies within post-secondary

21:12.405 --> 21:13.965
institutions can be

21:13.985 --> 21:16.565
or have been disrupted, including

21:16.745 --> 21:19.285
how the changes universities have put in place are

21:19.385 --> 21:22.445
or perhaps are not improving the lived experiences

21:22.505 --> 21:24.325
of indigenous university students.

Indigenous Student Experiences and Systemic Racism

00:00:00 - Context for this study is a complicated one with multiple layers. This study examines how indigenous university students in Canada perceive and experience and manage the racism that they face in that context. But you have to begin looking at and acknowledging the history of Canada first before you can look more specifically at that environment. The history of Canada is not something that I can adequately address here today in this interview, not comprehensively. However, I will touch on a couple of main points that are very relevant. So in Canada, there's a long history
00:00:35 - This travels back to the very origins of the country itself and is in fact the bedrock that the country was built upon. And over time, the processes of settler colonialism have severely harmed indigenous peoples who live on this lands on all levels spiritually as individuals, community members, nation members. these harms are too many to mention comprehensively, but do include stolen land, stolen children, broken promises, implementation of racist laws and policies,
00:01:08 - at elimination. These processes of colonization are not simply historical, as many seem to believe they are ever present structures that are systemically embedded within contemporary Canadian society. So we must learn and understand colonial operations both past and present before we can begin comprehending how that plays out in our everyday lives, particularly in terms of racism, inequality,
00:01:40 - Canada is often known internationally as peacekeepers with focus on equality and justice, but this view is ignorant to the ongoing marginalization of indigenous peoples and the pervasive racism that continues across the nation. So up to this point, I've been speaking about the larger Canadian context. However, this study zooms in to examine the context of post-secondary institutions across the nation. The grander Canadian context
00:02:08 - of this study are intimately connected, which is why I began on that more general level. The colonial structures and the attached racial ideologies that were the building blocks for Canada were also the building blocks for Canadian universities, and they continue to invade those spaces. Now, when looking at the post-secondary context, there's a lot of variation across institutions. After the Truth and Reconciliation Commission released their final report in 2015, there became a new
00:02:42 - to start addressing the calls to action and start addressing the concept of reconciliation. However, these changes varied greatly depending on the province, depending on the institution where they began to make change, how quickly those changes advanced were extremely different across institutions. Some institutions develop strategies such as implementing land acknowledgements, inclusion of mandatory indigenous learning content, increased hiring

Challenges and Resilience of Indigenous Students

00:03:10 - and increased creation of indigenous spaces, and also the creation of indigenous insight committees. Now, arguably these are all very positive steps and changes, but what has come to light is that the outcomes of these changes, what is often called reconciliatory initiatives, have not been consistent and not consistently positive. So within the Canadian University context, indigenous students have been working for decades to secure access to secure power and space.
00:03:45 - and normalize Eurocentric ideologies. This can create environments that are dangerous for indigenous students, and by using the term dangerous, I am including concerns for physical, mental, and community safety. Now, indigenous post-secondary students show resilience, determination and extreme perseverance on a daily basis. Within these institutions, indigenous students are pushing forward, securing safe spaces, continuing to demand equity
00:04:17 - they're battling for success both personally and academically. When looking at previous literature regarding indigenous peoples and education in Canada, there is a large body of evidence that shows significant discrepancies in achieved education outcomes. some statistical analyses have revealed disparities that show that potentially less than 10% of the indigenous population are achieving post-secondary degrees or completing that level of education, whereas
00:04:50 - of the non-indigenous population achieving that level of education. Now, we know through investigation and a lot of different research that higher levels of education are directly related to improved standards of living, greater employment satisfaction, higher incomes, and improved health. And so the lived impact of these disparities are extremely significant. further research studies have demonstrated that at post-secondary institutions in both Canada
00:05:22 - and racial discrimination continue to be ubiquitous, including issues such as exclusion, isolation, and marginality. Hor research studies also support serious concerns regarding institutional rhetoric rather than action and academic, a way of describing a lot of words and a lot of written policy with not enough legitimate change. much of the data regarding indigenous university students in Canada has been based within quantitative studies rather than qualitative,
00:05:55 - of the indigenous students and how these experiences connect to systemic racism and settler colonialism. however, I will mention today a couple of previous studies that also centralized expert testimony of indigenous students when looking at the relational experiences they're having within those environments. in 2014, Clark's team published a study that looked at the racial climate of one research-based Canadian university. After completing six interviews,

Indigenous Student Experiences and Racism in Universities

00:06:26 - of experience including unconstrained, voyeurism, jealous accusations, cultural elimination or misrepresentation expectations of primi and isolation. Following that, I myself began researching in this area with a published study in 2016, and this study further investigated indigenous students experiences. It extended the research done by Clark's team in terms of the scope of investigation
00:06:57 - and microaggression directed toward indigenous students. 17 interviews were completed and additional themes were highlighted to further support this research, including very low levels of interaction between indigenous and non-indigenous students, audience effects that affected behavior and the persistence of racism in both in class, administrative and social realms across the university. Then in 2019, Johanna's team published another qualitative based study
00:07:31 - and again, expanding understandings of overt discrimination, assumptions of intellectual inferiority, constant invalidation, racial segregation, and how the myth of meritocracy was operating within those zones. One of the things Yohanna's team strongly noted was very little support for indigenous students from faculty and staff, and in fact, individuals in those positions were often, came to be known as the origin of those experiences
00:08:02 - In 2022 F Moff published a study looking at the impacts of the indigenization process. This was one of the many movements that came after the TRC published their final report. after completing 10 in-person interviews, ECMA found that there were both positive and negative outcomes from participation within these processes and called it a paradoxical pursuit, outlining that while including and supporting the indigenous students,
00:08:33 - also causing them harm. The current study under discussion builds upon those findings by increasing the number of indigenous students interviewed and including multiple university contexts for comparison. This created a more comprehensive understanding regarding the nature of indigenous students' experiences with racism and discrimination, its operations and its impacts. It also highlights the numerous ways that indigenous students are advocating and persevering with a determined focus on bettering
00:09:07 - The data for this project was drawn from ethnographic observation interviews and demographic surveys. So T'S project 27 in-person interviews were completed with indigenous students at three different universities in the province of Ontario Canada. Two of the universities were located in the southern region with one university located in the north. The interviews were spread fairly evenly across these interviews or across these universities with 10

Indigenous Student Experiences in Canadian Universities

00:09:41 - and the following eight being done at the one found in the north. 16 of the students were female, 11 were male. 12 lived on reserve lands prior to relocating, for their post-secondary education, and their ages ranged from 19 years old to over 70 years old. Each interviewee also completed a short demographic survey. Now when working with post-secondary within the post-secondary context, one has to be aware that at each institution the indigenous student body is
00:10:13 - And then beyond that, each institution supports and commits to having different compositions of indigenous led student groups or committees. So it's in really important to note these variations in place, space, language, community, and beliefs that are all encompassed within this description of an indigenous student community at each institution. after carefully following ethics board and indigenous review panel protocols, administrative context,
00:10:43 - through email list serves so that indigenous students could choose whether they wanted to volunteer and participate in the project once the interviews had begun, further interviewees were then recruited using the snowball sampling technique to participate. The students were required to self-identify as ident indigenous and to be in their second year of university or higher. And the in-person interviews were semi-structured with participants being welcomed and encouraged to take the the reins to take the direction
00:11:16 - considered to be the most relevant. Throughout the project, I used a grounded theory approach, so I was continuously moving between the interview data and the interview structure and questions adjusting the structure as new questions and analytical themes emerged, and this allowed me to more deeply examine the aspects of experience that were highlighted as important by the interviewees. Then once the interviews were completed and transcribed, I used Atlas TI to do a thematic analysis
00:11:49 - I spent time experiencing the university environment, spending time on the campus of each institution. So this included visiting both learning and social spaces on campus, listening to course instruction, attending indigenous led student events, and observing and creating detailed notes in all of those spaces. Of the 27 students interviewed 93% reported experiencing anti indigenous racism within the university context.
00:12:20 - They're representing very sizable barriers. The indigenous students described four areas or themes that framed their experiences within this environment, and then they described the barriers contained within these areas. The four areas were outlined as in-class experiences, direct interactions with professors, social interactions, and then engaging the university institution itself within the university classroom, the high levels of racism

Racism in Indigenous Students' Classroom Experiences

00:12:52 - is operating its nature was consistent across all three universities in question. The in-class experiences were extremely challenging, often eliciting great frustration, anger, and upset for the students that included facing openly declared statements of racism, demonstrations of ignorance regarding Canada's relationship, current and past with indigenous peoples. open disrespect, important community elders, continuous
00:13:23 - or erasure of indigenous peoples within curriculums. Serious concerns were raised by the majority of interviewees about the university classroom being a safe and productive space for indigenous students. Experiences of racism in the classroom take a heavy toll on indigenous students and in some cases threaten their ability to further pursue their education. One female indigenous student was told that her communication style was not deemed appropriate
00:13:55 - She was failed from her program and told she could not continue until she participated in additional communication training at her own expense and was taught, and I quote how to be white. Now, in terms with interactions directly with professors, these experiences differed from the more general in-class experiences as they reflect interactions with the professors. Specifically, some of the problematic experiences identified
00:14:26 - and inability to deal with racially charged in class situations. Often professors would rely on indigenous students to guide course content regarding indigenous peoples, sometimes even teaching those parts of the courses. For them. This caused the students to be singled out, feel extreme stress, and also to experience a high level of pressure to represent what I've already established is a very diverse indigenous student population. Many students also described instances where the racist
00:14:59 - themselves and others highlighted discrimination they faced from professors when the students wanted to include and incorporate indigenous knowledge in into their assignments being told it was simply personal opinion and not fact or data. These experiences and interactions present critical barriers to not only secure and safe learning spaces, but also to positive achievements and course completion in the social environment. Experiences of interpersonal racism were least common,
00:15:31 - by the students presented very valuable insights. Examples of indigenous students being exoticized, instances of brutally explicit overt racism from non-indigenous students, even experiencing racism within university led extracurricular activities. One student shared how when warming up for her university lacrosse game, the coach demanded in front of the entire team that she let out, and I quote her savage call.

Experiences of Racism in University Sports Teams

00:16:01 - and being laughed at in front of the entire team. These social experiences were much more direct and elicited strong and immediate responses from the indigenous students themselves, and there's no question of the barrier that these presented. To continue the lacrosse team example, this student petitioned the coach and the team leadership to embed anti-racism policy directly into their team code of conduct. And after months and months of no action being taken, she quit the team for her own welfare and safety.
00:16:36 - systemic racism that occurred when engaging with the university At the institutional level, these concerns varied greatly in terms of both the nature and the source within the institution. However, what connects these experiences is systemically embedded barriers that appear to be rooted in anti indigenous racism and discrimination. Some examples included being told that indigenous led initiatives were not worth funding. An example of a systemic move toward elimination
00:17:08 - for tuition, which led to delays in access, stress, and significant interest charges, lack of staff and infrastructure to lead courses that the universities themselves had promoted as having indigenous content, and therefore these courses being canceled and impacting education opportunities or even universities pushing through policy changes without properly informing the general student body and the faculty of the direction and the purpose resulting in severe negative racial backlash
00:17:41 - There were so many personal stories shared where intersectionality played a critical role, the intersection of numerous social positions coming together to alter individual's lived experience. Gender brought forward some very important variations, both positive and negative. Female students mentioned the positive impact of indigenous female leaders within the university institution and also having great opportunities for community involvement. However, female students also spoke to their subjugation
00:18:14 - and female students who are mothers. Described many additional complexities and burdens. This research data has expanded understandings of how anti indigenous racism continues to operate within higher education. It has shown that the levels of anti indigenous racism are very high and pervasive across different areas of the university and also between different university institutions. Along with supporting the themes highlighted in my initial
00:18:47 - The fluid nature of how the racism is operating. Shifting in between covert and overt depending on external variables and how the negative impact impacts of racism can be amplified when experiences overflowed simultaneously into multiple areas of the university or multiple thematic areas. The consistency and validity of the research data suggests that anti indigenous racism may be a concern amongst

Addressing Systemic Racism in Higher Education

00:19:16 - More widely and further research should pursue this. Most interviewees reported their perception that the racism they experienced was a result of ignorance and misinformation. As racism becomes enmeshed within the systems and institutions that govern our everyday life, individuals themselves are unaware of the ideologies that they're operating within. These systemic structural elements of racism perpetuate preexisting inequalities
00:19:48 - and stereotypical portrayals or misrepresentations. A highly significant finding within the data encompassed the strength, perseverance, and ongoing commitments to advocacy by the indigenous students. This data exemplifies the many ways in which indigenous students are refusing to accept the settler colonial project of elimination. Repeatedly within the data, students describe a shared sense of responsibility
00:20:17 - to override the additional weight responsibility and fatigue, but not without cost to those individuals. With the nationwide focus on reconciliation, that was brought about by the TRC report and the many positive initiatives for reconciliation that emerged at Canadian universities across the country. The question arises as to why the levels of both systemic and interpersonal anti indigenous racism are still so high as is reflected in the data.
00:20:49 - Are the changes based only in policy and content rather than doing the work of unsettling Eurocentric teaching, why are universities not following through with the necessary financial support and infrastructure requirements? These are critical questions for future research. It is imperative to investigate further how and where colonial hierarchies within post-secondary institutions can be or have been disrupted, including how the changes universities have put in place are
00:21:22 - of indigenous university students.

Faculti AI can make mistakes

Faculti

Popular in Sociology

The City as a Growth Machine: Toward a Political Economy of Place

Carceral Entrapments: Views from the Prison/Street Interface in India

Pre-problem families: predictive analytics and the future as the present

Were Muslim Barbarians Really Knocking On the Gates of Ontario?

Poor People’s Survival Strategies

Racism within the Canadian University

Next in Ethnicity and Racism

Guide

Platform and Category Pages

Contact Us

FAQs

What is Faculti?

How do you select interviews?

Interview Process

Page Structure

Popular in Sociology

Guide

Platform and Category Pages

Contact Us

FAQs

What is Faculti?

How do you select interviews?

Interview Process

Accessibility Options

Contrast Adjustment

Text Size Adjustment

Text Spacing Adjustment

Line Height Adjustment

Cursor Size Adjustment

Page Structure Options

Page Structure